Below is a brief overview of this Project Work.
Format: MS WORD
| Chapters: 1-5
| Pages: 71
The knowledge of mathematics is paramount in the success of every man in his numerous day to day activities in life. Mathematics education holds the potency of making individuals to relate mathematics knowledge to everyday problem being encountered and hence develop the individuals to a level that they are intellectually and economically stable. Right from the pre-historic days of the early human societies to the present “hitec” age, mathematics has played a fundamental role in the economic development of many countries of the world (Popoola, 2002). In every country, regardless of the level of economic, scientific and technological development, mathematics has to be taught to a number of scientists, technical specialists, scientific researchers etc. The service of these professionals will be continuously required for the well-being of the people and for the development of the society. Nigeria as a country needs to strive for scientific and technological breakthrough in order to cater for her domestic and international needs to enable her assert her greatness among the United Nations member states. The pertinent virtue of mathematics as well as its contributions to the development of mankind has earned the subject the prominence it enjoys among other school subjects. The importance accorded to mathematics in the school curriculum from primary to secondary levels reflects accurately the vital role played by the subject in contemporary society. It is a core subject in the primary and secondary school certificate curriculum. Also a credit pass in mathematics at the senior secondary school certificate examination is needed as a pre-requisite for admission into the tertiary institutions in Nigeria. It is in realization of this that many countries resort to making specially comprehensive and well-programmed efforts towards the effective teaching and learning of mathematics and sciences at all levels of their educational system through the development and implementation of innovative programmes and projects (Azuka, 2000). Unfortunately, pupils’ and students’ performance in this all important subject have not been impressive. To support this assertion, Agwagah (2004) lamented that in spite of all the important roles mathematics play in the development of mankind; its achievement has been very poor. In the same vein Ugwuanyi (2009) stated that even though the indispensability of mathematics in the development of our society has been universally acknowledge the output of its teaching and learning is still not encouraging. Also (WAEC 2005 & 2009) revealed dishearting and alarming poor performance of students in mathematics. However, this situation is not peculiar to Nigeria, it depict the general trend worldwide as International Studies on Education (ISE) revealed that secondary school students in developing countries lag behind in mathematics (Fennema & Sherman in Popoola, 2002). The dishearting high failure rate in mathematics at pre-tertiary school level has bothered the minds of many researchers, authors and mathematics educators and even the government and attempts are being made to proffer some solutions. Hence, many researchers, mathematics educators and concerned individuals have been considering ways and means of ensuring effective teaching and learning of mathematics in schools that can enhance students’ achievement, interest and retention. This leads to the various teaching methods adopted by mathematics teachers in teaching mathematics in our schools. For the purpose of this work, studies were grouped according to the treatment under investigation and category names were derived from these groupings. These teaching method types (i.e innovatives / experimental) that was tested against control were grouped into five categories as adapted from Haas (2002). These are:
1. Cooperative learning
2. Technology aided instruction
3. Problem-based learning
4. Manipulatives, Models and Multiple representations
5. Direct instruction.
Cooperative learning is a method of instruction characterized by students working together in small groups to reach a common goal. It is generally understood to be learning which takes place in environment where students work collaboratively in small groups by sharing ideas while working on a given task (Okebukola in Eniayeju, 2010). It is a discovery method in which small groups are used. Cooperative learning category is characterized by; Students’ positve interdependence, Individual and group accountability, Appropriate collaborative skills, Group processing, Heterogeneous groups, Teachers’ supervision and evaluation (Duplass, 2006).
Technology Aided Instruction: This is a method of instruction that is characterized by using computer soft ware, Video tapes, power point projectors, hand-held calculator etc to enhance the teaching of mathematics. Kersina (2003) noted that, “technology” is essential in teaching and learning of mathematics, it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhance students’ achievement
Problem-Based Learning: This is teaching through problem solving where students apply a general rule (deduction) or draw new conclusion or rules (induction) based on information presented in the problem. Problem based learning is a focused, experiential learning organzied around the investigation and resolution of messy, real world problems. Students learn through facilitated problem solving that centers on a complex problem. The teaching methods under this category should involve student ability to think critically, analyze and solve complex real world problems, to find, evaluate and use appropriate learning resources; to demonstrate effective communication skills and to use content knowledge and intellectual skills to become continual learners.
Manipulatives, Models and Multiple Representations: Multiple representations are ways to symobolize, to describe and to refer to the same mathematical entity. It includes graphs and diagrams, tables and grids fomulas, concrete models etc. This is a method of teaching characterized by teaching the students techniques or strategies for generating or manipulating representations of mathematics content and processes, whether concrete, symbolic or abstract.
Direct Instruction: This is a method of instruction characterized by teaching through establishing a direction and rationale for learning by relating new concepts to previous learning, leading students through a specified sequence of instruction based on predetermined steps that introduce and reinforce a practice and feedback relative to how well they are doing (Haas, 2002). This is recognized as the most common way that most mathematics teachers operate. According to Rosenshine(1979), direct instruction has the following characteristics: an academic focus; a teacher centered foucus; little student choice of activity, use of large groups rather than small groups for instruction; and use of factual questions and controlled practice in instruction.
In all the categories grouped above, the primary research studies that were put under each category in this study reflected the outlined characteristic feature of that particular category. This categorization helped in generalizing the research findings of this study. In line with this grouping, Pillmer & Light (1980) argued that grouping of studies according to their characteristics is an essential step in assessing the range of generalizability of research findings. Also Hedges (1982) stated that the basic assumptions are that the investigator has a priori grouping of studies and a scheme for classifying studies that are likely to produce similar results. Often this will take the form of set of categories into which studies can be cross classified by two or more sets of categories. These method type categories outlined here should not be considered mutually exclusive because one method may contain another. Several researches have been carried out on the effect of these teaching methods on students’ achievement, interest and retention either separately or collectively.
Achievement according to new Webster’s dictionary (1995), means to reach a required standard of performance, to carryout successfully. In the context of this study, achievement refers to cognitive achievement of students which is measured in terms of passes in teacher-made test/standardized test in mathematics. Hence, the researcher upholds the view of Ajua (2006) that student’s academic achievement entails successful academic progress attained through effort and skill. It involves the determination of the degree of attainment of the individuals in tasks, courses or programmes to which the individuals were sufficiently exposed. The academic of primary school pupils / secondary school students in mathematics has not been encouuraging.
Obodo (2004) stated that throughout Nigeria, at all levels of education - primary, secondary and tertiary, the performance of pupils/students in mathematics is at a very poor state. This is evident as the result of students in mathematics at the graduating class of each level of education kept on deteriorating year in year out. Statistics shows that mass failure in mathematics examination is real and the trend of students’ performance have been on a fluctuating decline (Ali 2000; Betikiu 2002; Agwagh, 2004; WAEC 2005, 2007, 2009 & 2010; NECO 2009). This low achievement in mathematics may be attributed to students’ lack of interest in the subject.
Interest according to Imoko & Agwagah (2006) is a subjective feeling of concentration or persisting tendency to pay attention and enjoy some activities or content. It is the feeling of intentness, concern or curiosity about an object (Obodo, 2004). It can also be regarded as the condition of being eager to know or learn about something. Interest is an important variable in the teaching and learning of mathematics. This is because when a pupil/student become interested in an activity he/she is likely to be more deeply involved in that activity. Okigbo & Okeke (2011) has this to say, “Though some children may be intellectually and physically capable of learning, they may never learn until their interest is stimulated” (p.I01). s Once the interests of the students are stimulated, they will continue to learn as long as the teacher is capable of sustaining their interest in the subject matter. They also said that interest is a mother of attention, once there is direct interest, attention is guaranteed and learning is assured.
Generally, there is a low interest in the study of mathematics and mathematics related courses at all levels of education in Nigeria (Obodo, 2004). Kurumeh (2007) stated that student’s fear and hate/dislike mathematics. The low interest in mathematics emanates from anxiety and fear. The phobia pupils/students have for mathematics causes them to dislike this important subject. Phobia has been observed by Aprebo in Okigbo (2010) to be an academic sickness whose virus has not yet been fully diagnosed for an effective treatment in the class and the symptoms of this phobia is usually expressed on the faces of mathematics students in their classes. Researchers like Glimer in Kurumeh (2007) attributed this situation to the fact that mathematics is foreign, difficult and abstract and the method of teaching it too, is foreign. The chief examiner’s report of WAEC (2009 & 2010) suggested that teachers should help students develop interest in mathematics and improve their achievement by reducing the abstractness of mathematics, and remove their apathy and fear of the subject. This gave birth to varieties of teaching methods that researchers and mathematics educators have been using in teaching mathematics in order to find their effects on students’ interest in mathematics. However, low interest and poor achievement in mathematics by the students may be as a result of their inability to retain what is learnt.
Retention has been described as the process of maintaining the availability of a replica of the acquired new means or repeat performance by a learner with an acquired piece of knowledge (Ausbel, Novak & Henesiana in Nneji, 2010). Retention also refers to the ability to remember or utilize already acquired knowledge or skills. It refers to skill or knowledge or competences a learner acquired and retained from a learning situation after forgetting has taken place (Ezeoano, 2008). It is the capacity to remember something, skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes or other responses initially acquired. Retention plays an important role for what is learned to be effectively applied. The teacher is usually faced with the task of how to help pupils/students improve on their ability to assimilate and retain what they have learnt.
Students’ poor retention in mathematics may not be unconnected with rote learning that is prevalent in schools. However, mathematics concepts cannot be learnt properly by mere memorization through rote learning as human beings have limited capacity for memorization. Rote learning can even be traced back to the colonial era. The teaching of mathematics (arithmetic) during the colonial era was by rote learning of some basic processes and computation, and so, the learners produced could only solve problems mechanically through the use of memorized formula without knowing the “how” and “why” of their solution. This kind of learning is still observable now especially in lower primary school pupil where a pupil can learn multiplication table from 2x1 to 12x12 through rote leaning. He/she can stand up and recite correctly all of them from beginning to the end (i.e. from 2x1 to 12x12). But when an independent question is asked say 8x7, the pupil may not get the answer easily rather he/she may start from 8x1 to meet up with 8x7 before a correct answer can be given. This is due to the fact that he/she does not know the how and why 8x7 will give 56.
Enough explanation with practical examples should be given to these pupils to bring out the how and why of certain solutions of mathematics concepts so as to boast their retentive ability. This is also applicable to secondary school students when they learn about formulae and their applications in solving problems. The derivation of the formular should be exposed to them so that they can understand why the formular is, as it is.
Dulton in Ezeamenyi (2004) asserts that failure to provide enough application to real life activities, social usage cum poor teaching techniques are strong limiting factors to students’ retention in mathematics. In support of this, Nneji (2009) stated that retention depends mainly on teaching strategy adopted by the teacher. In the same vein, Azuka (2009) made case for the adoption of instructional methods that promote students’ involvement and activity in the teaching of secondary school mathematics so as to enhance students’ retentiveness. Several teaching methods or strategies in teaching mathematics at both primary and secondary schools have been explored by researchers and their effect on pupils/students’ retention tested. Therefore, it is essential for pupils/students to master mathematics concepts, be interested in it, retain learnt concepts, and hence strive to achieve higher in it. The research studies on the effect of teaching methods on students’ academic achievement, interest and retention have been necessitated so as to achieve the above. These researchers reported conflicting result in the magnitude of the effect size and hence no consensus was reached on the most effective taeaching method category. The only way to arrive at a consensus on the most effective method category is therefore, to integrate the results of the previous studies so as to bring out a composite view of the mean effect of teaching methods on achievement, interest and retention. But this may not be an easy job since the statistical tools used by different researchers may not be the same. Buttressing this point, Adeleke (1988) explained that it is not an easy task to integrate all studies especially when varieties of statistics have been used. Hence the way out is to review all the related studies using meta-analytic procedure.
Meta-analysis is defined as the study of a large body of studies using statistical procedures for the purpose of integrating, synthesizing and making sense of them (Glass, 1976). It is the analysis of analyses. It is a statistical technique for combining the findings from independent studies. The objective of meta-analysis is to allow for quantitative analysis of reviewed research literature. The conduct of meta-analysis follows certain procedures which are: Identification of the problem; Literature search;
Reading and coding studies; Quantifying study finding - effect size calculation; Statistical analysis of effect size; and Interpretation of results. Identification of the problems: As with the traditional research one must first identify an area of investigation. However with meta-analysis it is important that the area in question has been researched to some extent. There is no set number of studies that are needed but one must remember in identifying an area of investigation that the purpose of the meta-analysis is to provide a consensus of past research.
Literature search: An extensive literature search is necessary when conducting a meta-analysis prior to this search, the researcher need to establish criteria for inclusion or exclusion of a particular study. This is a very important step in the metaanalysis procedure as it provides considerable subsequent quantitative values used for analysis. Examples of literature search are computer search, journal search or theses and dissertations.
Reading and Coding Studies: It is important to establish a coding sheet for research utilizing a meta-analysis design. The coding sheet is analogous to the instruments that ae used in the collection of data in traditional research. This coding sheet provides guidance within the research and also establishes validity and power to the meta-analysis design.
Quantifying the Findings- Effect size calcations: One of the problems with metaanalysis design relates to comparing variable findings of differing units of measure. This has been often referred to as comparing applies and oranges. If these two variables were to be compared, one might look for a common unit of measure such as categorizing them as fruit or detemining their kilocalorie values. But for research that may compare an experiment group with control group, the use of effect size calculation are employed to reduce the values to standard deviation units (Thomas & Nelson, 1996). With the standard units of measure established, the argument of “apples and oranges” is addressed.
Statistical Analysis: The meta-analytic research utilizes a variety of statistical methods. But with the established standard units of measure as mentioned above, comparative statistical procedures can be run in the same way as traditional studies.
Interpretation of Results: The interpretation of results is strengthered with the statistical procedure mentioned above. Mann (1990) notes that clear cut findings often emerge from studies whose previous findings were literally scattered. Do to the quantitative nature of a meta-analytic review, its application of a scientific method allows for a greater objective analysis and less bias than the process of traditional review (Hoffert, 1997).
1. Cooperative learning
2. Technology aided instruction
3. Problem-based learning
4. Manipulatives, Models and Multiple representations
5. Direct instruction.
Cooperative learning is a method of instruction characterized by students working together in small groups to reach a common goal. It is generally understood to be learning which takes place in environment where students work collaboratively in small groups by sharing ideas while working on a given task (Okebukola in Eniayeju, 2010). It is a discovery method in which small groups are used. Cooperative learning category is characterized by; Students’ positve interdependence, Individual and group accountability, Appropriate collaborative skills, Group processing, Heterogeneous groups, Teachers’ supervision and evaluation (Duplass, 2006).
Technology Aided Instruction: This is a method of instruction that is characterized by using computer soft ware, Video tapes, power point projectors, hand-held calculator etc to enhance the teaching of mathematics. Kersina (2003) noted that, “technology” is essential in teaching and learning of mathematics, it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhance students’ achievement
Problem-Based Learning: This is teaching through problem solving where students apply a general rule (deduction) or draw new conclusion or rules (induction) based on information presented in the problem. Problem based learning is a focused, experiential learning organzied around the investigation and resolution of messy, real world problems. Students learn through facilitated problem solving that centers on a complex problem. The teaching methods under this category should involve student ability to think critically, analyze and solve complex real world problems, to find, evaluate and use appropriate learning resources; to demonstrate effective communication skills and to use content knowledge and intellectual skills to become continual learners.
Manipulatives, Models and Multiple Representations: Multiple representations are ways to symobolize, to describe and to refer to the same mathematical entity. It includes graphs and diagrams, tables and grids fomulas, concrete models etc. This is a method of teaching characterized by teaching the students techniques or strategies for generating or manipulating representations of mathematics content and processes, whether concrete, symbolic or abstract.
Direct Instruction: This is a method of instruction characterized by teaching through establishing a direction and rationale for learning by relating new concepts to previous learning, leading students through a specified sequence of instruction based on predetermined steps that introduce and reinforce a practice and feedback relative to how well they are doing (Haas, 2002). This is recognized as the most common way that most mathematics teachers operate. According to Rosenshine(1979), direct instruction has the following characteristics: an academic focus; a teacher centered foucus; little student choice of activity, use of large groups rather than small groups for instruction; and use of factual questions and controlled practice in instruction.
In all the categories grouped above, the primary research studies that were put under each category in this study reflected the outlined characteristic feature of that particular category. This categorization helped in generalizing the research findings of this study. In line with this grouping, Pillmer & Light (1980) argued that grouping of studies according to their characteristics is an essential step in assessing the range of generalizability of research findings. Also Hedges (1982) stated that the basic assumptions are that the investigator has a priori grouping of studies and a scheme for classifying studies that are likely to produce similar results. Often this will take the form of set of categories into which studies can be cross classified by two or more sets of categories. These method type categories outlined here should not be considered mutually exclusive because one method may contain another. Several researches have been carried out on the effect of these teaching methods on students’ achievement, interest and retention either separately or collectively.
Achievement according to new Webster’s dictionary (1995), means to reach a required standard of performance, to carryout successfully. In the context of this study, achievement refers to cognitive achievement of students which is measured in terms of passes in teacher-made test/standardized test in mathematics. Hence, the researcher upholds the view of Ajua (2006) that student’s academic achievement entails successful academic progress attained through effort and skill. It involves the determination of the degree of attainment of the individuals in tasks, courses or programmes to which the individuals were sufficiently exposed. The academic of primary school pupils / secondary school students in mathematics has not been encouuraging.
Obodo (2004) stated that throughout Nigeria, at all levels of education - primary, secondary and tertiary, the performance of pupils/students in mathematics is at a very poor state. This is evident as the result of students in mathematics at the graduating class of each level of education kept on deteriorating year in year out. Statistics shows that mass failure in mathematics examination is real and the trend of students’ performance have been on a fluctuating decline (Ali 2000; Betikiu 2002; Agwagh, 2004; WAEC 2005, 2007, 2009 & 2010; NECO 2009). This low achievement in mathematics may be attributed to students’ lack of interest in the subject.
Interest according to Imoko & Agwagah (2006) is a subjective feeling of concentration or persisting tendency to pay attention and enjoy some activities or content. It is the feeling of intentness, concern or curiosity about an object (Obodo, 2004). It can also be regarded as the condition of being eager to know or learn about something. Interest is an important variable in the teaching and learning of mathematics. This is because when a pupil/student become interested in an activity he/she is likely to be more deeply involved in that activity. Okigbo & Okeke (2011) has this to say, “Though some children may be intellectually and physically capable of learning, they may never learn until their interest is stimulated” (p.I01). s Once the interests of the students are stimulated, they will continue to learn as long as the teacher is capable of sustaining their interest in the subject matter. They also said that interest is a mother of attention, once there is direct interest, attention is guaranteed and learning is assured.
Generally, there is a low interest in the study of mathematics and mathematics related courses at all levels of education in Nigeria (Obodo, 2004). Kurumeh (2007) stated that student’s fear and hate/dislike mathematics. The low interest in mathematics emanates from anxiety and fear. The phobia pupils/students have for mathematics causes them to dislike this important subject. Phobia has been observed by Aprebo in Okigbo (2010) to be an academic sickness whose virus has not yet been fully diagnosed for an effective treatment in the class and the symptoms of this phobia is usually expressed on the faces of mathematics students in their classes. Researchers like Glimer in Kurumeh (2007) attributed this situation to the fact that mathematics is foreign, difficult and abstract and the method of teaching it too, is foreign. The chief examiner’s report of WAEC (2009 & 2010) suggested that teachers should help students develop interest in mathematics and improve their achievement by reducing the abstractness of mathematics, and remove their apathy and fear of the subject. This gave birth to varieties of teaching methods that researchers and mathematics educators have been using in teaching mathematics in order to find their effects on students’ interest in mathematics. However, low interest and poor achievement in mathematics by the students may be as a result of their inability to retain what is learnt.
Retention has been described as the process of maintaining the availability of a replica of the acquired new means or repeat performance by a learner with an acquired piece of knowledge (Ausbel, Novak & Henesiana in Nneji, 2010). Retention also refers to the ability to remember or utilize already acquired knowledge or skills. It refers to skill or knowledge or competences a learner acquired and retained from a learning situation after forgetting has taken place (Ezeoano, 2008). It is the capacity to remember something, skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes or other responses initially acquired. Retention plays an important role for what is learned to be effectively applied. The teacher is usually faced with the task of how to help pupils/students improve on their ability to assimilate and retain what they have learnt.
Students’ poor retention in mathematics may not be unconnected with rote learning that is prevalent in schools. However, mathematics concepts cannot be learnt properly by mere memorization through rote learning as human beings have limited capacity for memorization. Rote learning can even be traced back to the colonial era. The teaching of mathematics (arithmetic) during the colonial era was by rote learning of some basic processes and computation, and so, the learners produced could only solve problems mechanically through the use of memorized formula without knowing the “how” and “why” of their solution. This kind of learning is still observable now especially in lower primary school pupil where a pupil can learn multiplication table from 2x1 to 12x12 through rote leaning. He/she can stand up and recite correctly all of them from beginning to the end (i.e. from 2x1 to 12x12). But when an independent question is asked say 8x7, the pupil may not get the answer easily rather he/she may start from 8x1 to meet up with 8x7 before a correct answer can be given. This is due to the fact that he/she does not know the how and why 8x7 will give 56.
Enough explanation with practical examples should be given to these pupils to bring out the how and why of certain solutions of mathematics concepts so as to boast their retentive ability. This is also applicable to secondary school students when they learn about formulae and their applications in solving problems. The derivation of the formular should be exposed to them so that they can understand why the formular is, as it is.
Dulton in Ezeamenyi (2004) asserts that failure to provide enough application to real life activities, social usage cum poor teaching techniques are strong limiting factors to students’ retention in mathematics. In support of this, Nneji (2009) stated that retention depends mainly on teaching strategy adopted by the teacher. In the same vein, Azuka (2009) made case for the adoption of instructional methods that promote students’ involvement and activity in the teaching of secondary school mathematics so as to enhance students’ retentiveness. Several teaching methods or strategies in teaching mathematics at both primary and secondary schools have been explored by researchers and their effect on pupils/students’ retention tested. Therefore, it is essential for pupils/students to master mathematics concepts, be interested in it, retain learnt concepts, and hence strive to achieve higher in it. The research studies on the effect of teaching methods on students’ academic achievement, interest and retention have been necessitated so as to achieve the above. These researchers reported conflicting result in the magnitude of the effect size and hence no consensus was reached on the most effective taeaching method category. The only way to arrive at a consensus on the most effective method category is therefore, to integrate the results of the previous studies so as to bring out a composite view of the mean effect of teaching methods on achievement, interest and retention. But this may not be an easy job since the statistical tools used by different researchers may not be the same. Buttressing this point, Adeleke (1988) explained that it is not an easy task to integrate all studies especially when varieties of statistics have been used. Hence the way out is to review all the related studies using meta-analytic procedure.
Meta-analysis is defined as the study of a large body of studies using statistical procedures for the purpose of integrating, synthesizing and making sense of them (Glass, 1976). It is the analysis of analyses. It is a statistical technique for combining the findings from independent studies. The objective of meta-analysis is to allow for quantitative analysis of reviewed research literature. The conduct of meta-analysis follows certain procedures which are: Identification of the problem; Literature search;
Reading and coding studies; Quantifying study finding - effect size calculation; Statistical analysis of effect size; and Interpretation of results. Identification of the problems: As with the traditional research one must first identify an area of investigation. However with meta-analysis it is important that the area in question has been researched to some extent. There is no set number of studies that are needed but one must remember in identifying an area of investigation that the purpose of the meta-analysis is to provide a consensus of past research.
Literature search: An extensive literature search is necessary when conducting a meta-analysis prior to this search, the researcher need to establish criteria for inclusion or exclusion of a particular study. This is a very important step in the metaanalysis procedure as it provides considerable subsequent quantitative values used for analysis. Examples of literature search are computer search, journal search or theses and dissertations.
Reading and Coding Studies: It is important to establish a coding sheet for research utilizing a meta-analysis design. The coding sheet is analogous to the instruments that ae used in the collection of data in traditional research. This coding sheet provides guidance within the research and also establishes validity and power to the meta-analysis design.
Quantifying the Findings- Effect size calcations: One of the problems with metaanalysis design relates to comparing variable findings of differing units of measure. This has been often referred to as comparing applies and oranges. If these two variables were to be compared, one might look for a common unit of measure such as categorizing them as fruit or detemining their kilocalorie values. But for research that may compare an experiment group with control group, the use of effect size calculation are employed to reduce the values to standard deviation units (Thomas & Nelson, 1996). With the standard units of measure established, the argument of “apples and oranges” is addressed.
Statistical Analysis: The meta-analytic research utilizes a variety of statistical methods. But with the established standard units of measure as mentioned above, comparative statistical procedures can be run in the same way as traditional studies.
Interpretation of Results: The interpretation of results is strengthered with the statistical procedure mentioned above. Mann (1990) notes that clear cut findings often emerge from studies whose previous findings were literally scattered. Do to the quantitative nature of a meta-analytic review, its application of a scientific method allows for a greater objective analysis and less bias than the process of traditional review (Hoffert, 1997).
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